leonard chess and etta james

When, in1971, the couple were arrested in San Antonio, Texas, on narcotics charges, Mills took the fall. Etta James: The Essential Modern Records Collection (Virgin/EMI) includes 15 tracks spanning 1954-57. [20] In 1963, she had another major hit with "Pushover" and released the live album Etta James Rocks the House, recorded at the New Era Club in Nashville, Tennessee. What The "Cadillac Records" Movie Didn't Tell You About Etta James's "I Video unavailable Watch on YouTube Watch on Etta James, who has died aged 73 after suffering from leukaemia, was among the most critically acclaimed and influential female singers of the past 50 years, even if she never achieved huge popular success. It never happened. He even asked James, a longtime friend, and she told him, He kissed me on the cheek once.. Between this internal tug of war and growing up in a business that didnt cater much to a growing teenager, Ettas life journey was surrounded by upheaval and survival. James won six Grammy awards and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Here's one interesting reviews of this flick: Cadillac Records chronicles the success of Chess Records owned by shrewd business man Leonard Chess and the rise and fall of its Negro blues recording artists with race, sex, violence and drugs as the backdrop. Hail! But as early as 1954, James was, under the guidance of Johnny Otis, pivotal among the artists erecting musical signposts for Elvis, Jerry Lee and others who would follow. An elite fanclub ensured James sang at the Los Angeles Olympics opening ceremony in 1984, appeared in Taylor Hackford's celebrated Chuck Berry feature Hail! Rock'n'Roll (1987), opened stadium dates for the Rolling Stones and was inducted into the Rock'n'Roll Hall of Fame in 1993. Well, thats a good question especially when Ms. Jamess book was published in 1995, 13 years before the release of the movie, Cadillac Records. This brought her to yet another audience. Photograph: Sherry Rayn Barnett/Getty Images, Etta James: 'I was like a punker I'd spit in a minute' a classic interview from the vaults, Etta James - famous fans pay tribute on Twitter, Etta James to undergo court-ordered medical exam. Thank you for saying what I have been thinking for years. independent local journalism in Dallas. The National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) has We calculated our top 40 new releases of 2022 We calculated our top 10 historical/reissue You never quite knew what Chicago bassist Kelly Sill was going to play (or what he was going to say). In fact, Phil, who was also left out of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame proceedings upon Leonard's introduction as a pioneer in 1987, is never mentioned at all. Phil Chess obituary | Pop and rock | The Guardian In 1941, he married Revetta Sloan, who was also Jewish; they had three children: son Marshall and two daughters, Elaine and Susie[9]. In a world filled with smoke and mirrors, it always inspires me to see and experience artists who exude a powerful sense of truth. James publicly criticised her, then later offered an apology, suggesting that she was upset not to have been invited to sing herself. Who was the singer that played Etta James? Minnesota Fats, Muddy Waters, and Etta James - AzBilliards Forums It was, instead, the wailing Good Rockin Daddy, co-written by Richard Berry (who can be heard singing counterpoint on Roll With Me Henry) and Joe Bihari (who, with his brother Jules, owned Modern Records) that earned James her second major hit. On October 16, 1969, a few months after selling his namesake label to General Recorded Tape, Leonard Chess died of a heart attack. Hines abused James while she was under his tutelage; he often punched her in the chest while she sang to force her voice to come from her gut. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. In 1995, her autobiography, A Rage to Survive, co-written with David Ritz, was published. He was influential in the development of electric blues, Chicago blues, and rock and roll. 2 What happened to the owner of Chess Records? After beginning to date Harvey Fuqua, a singer for the Moonglows, James signed with Argo Records, a subsidiary of Chess Records. Phil Chess, co-founder of the iconic Chicago blues and rock 'n' roll label Chess Records, died Wednesday in Tucson, Ariz. (Muddy Waters' first trip to the UK was in 1958, not 1967; it is also unlikely that Leonard Chess and Etta James had a love affair. Her first was in 1995, when she was awarded Best Jazz Vocal Performance for the album Mystery Lady, which consisted of covers of Billie Holiday songs. [53] Both were musicians and eventually performed professionally with their mother; Donto played drums at Montreux in 1993, and Sametto played bass guitar circa 2003, among other performances and tours. [50], James was married to Artis Mills from 1969 until her death in 2012. [12], James frequently performed in Nashville's famed R&B clubs on the so-called "Chitlin' Circuit" in the 1940s, 50s, and 60s.[13]. The song reached No 1 on the R&B charts (while Georgia Gibbs's bland cover went to No 1 in the pop charts). The true story is that in 1928, Lejzor and Fiszel Czy moved to the U.S. with the rest of their family from a small village named Motal in what's Belarus today. In the 1950s, Chess Records' commercial success grew with artists such as Little Walter, The Moonglows, The Flamingos, and Chuck Berry, and in the '60s with Etta James, Fontella Bass, Koko Taylor, Little Milton, Laura Lee, and Tommy Tucker, as well as with the subsidiary labels Checker, Argo, and Cadet. 4 When did Etta James move to Los Angeles? When her contract with Modern came up for renewal in 1960, she signed a contract with Chess Records instead, with which she would go on to become one of the label's earliest stars. She agreed, lied to him that she was 18 and, when he demanded her mother's signed consent, went home and forged it Dorothy was then in prison. 0. Teamed with Joplin's collaborator Gabriel Meckler in 1973, James began to record rock songs: mauling the Eagles, slugging Randy Newman. Now if youre looking for a name to sell movie tickets, I can definitely see the follow the money rationale. Also included are her near-orgiastic reading of Lieber and Stollers Tears of Joy and the sunny Come What May, which finds James is a slightly mellower groove, presaging her Chess work that commenced just a couple of years later. In November 2011, James released her final album, The Dreamer, which was critically acclaimed upon its release. So in conclusion, when I think of an artist whos invested 58 years in writing and singing songs that come from the real chapters of her life, it seems only fitting that she have the honor of a real depiction. (portrayed by Alessandro Nivola)[14] which are also fictional accounts of the ascent (and descent) of the label itself and the personnel who were involved or recorded at Chess Records. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. No wonder Martin doesn't let the audience hear more than snatches of tunessave for Knowles' three extended numbers, clearly intended to sell the soundtrack. She continued recording for Private Music, which released the blues album Matriarch of the Blues in 2000, on which she returned to her R&B roots. Etta James and Leonard Chess never had a romantic or sexual relationship, as the film suggests (although James did have an affair with the married Harvey Fugua of the Moonglows, yet another Chess . Cadillac Records begins with Dixon laying the foundation of the story, introducing us to "one white boy from Chicago" (Chess, first seen mid-coitus) and "one sharecropper from Mississippi" (Waters, tilling the soil). Following this success, James became an in-demand concert performer, though she never again reached the heyday of her early to mid-1960s success. [59], James was hospitalized in January 2010 to treat an infection caused by MRSA, a bacterium resistant to many antibiotics. It opens with James rather notorious Roll With Me Henry, recorded when she was just 16. [19], By the mid-1990s, James's earlier musicby now considered classicwas being used in commercials, including "I Just Wanna Make Love to You," for example. Violence andsubstance abuse were now constants in James's life and she would maintain a difficult, combative relationship with her mother across many decades. The Impact of Chess Records - Black Music Scholar Once asked to describe her style, she responded that singing allowed her to vent "all this bitch shit inside of me". [9], James received her first professional vocal training at the age of five from James Earle Hines, musical director of the Echoes of Eden choir at the St. Paul Baptist Church in South-Central Los Angeles. Thanks for a marvelous posting! First, a key spoiler: Cadillac Records is not the story of Chess Records, the blues label started in Chicago in 1950 by brothers Leonard and Phil Chess that featured among its stable of artists Muddy Waters, Howlin' Wolf, Bo Diddley, Chuck Berry and Etta James, plus many others who birthed rock 'n' roll. Indeed, when most people think of James, they focus on her post-1960 career, particularly her years at Chess Records where, beginning with the iconic At Last, label owner Leonard Chess transformed her from a gutsy blues shouter to a power balladeer. Once you indulge yourself in her life, you quickly comprehend the fierce spirit, complexities and facts never fully realized in the Beyonce produced film, Cadillac Records. And he continues to record, it seems; here is his fledgling Facebook page. But in this version of the taletold in flashback, with overwrought narration provided by Cedric the Entertainer as Chess producer, session musician and house songwriter Willie Dixonthere is no Phil Chess, only Leonard, played by an actor, Adrien Brody, who, with his anachronistically tousled hair and Forever Fonzie wardrobe, looks as much like Leonard Chess as he does, well, Howlin' Wolf. On October 16, 1969, a few months after selling his namesake label to General Recorded Tape, Leonard Chess died of a heart attack. Most gallingly, for a film "based on a true story," there doesn't seem to be a single fact contained within writer-director Darnell Martin's ham-fisted fiction, which renders pre-rock musical history as yet another downer soap opera bloated with smack and sex and premature corpses, as though that's all that defined the period and the people. Stevie Wonder and Christina Aguilera gave musical tributes. Among the women on that list, only Aretha Franklin and Tina Turner ranked higher. She was placed on probation and ordered to pay a $500 fine. These sessions yielded her comeback hit "Tell Mama", co-written by Clarence Carter, which reached number ten on the R&B chart and number twenty-three for pop. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. The original title of the song was actually "Roll with Me, Henry", but it had been changed to avoid censorship at the time (roll implying sexual activity). However when you fully inhale the intricacies of Ms. Jamess defiant nature and understand the surrounding issues that followed her life and compare them to Beyonces persona and acting range, it just doesnt scream a perfect match. By clicking Accept All, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. In the early 1960s, Chess became involved in the broadcasting business as part owner of WVON-AM radio and later acquired WSDM-FM, both in Chicago. Meet the Team [58] In 1974, James was sentenced to drug treatment instead of serving time in prison. In October 1969, Leonard Chess died and by 1972, the only part of Chess Records still operating in Chicago was the recording studio, Ter-Mar Studios. Rock 'n' Roll.) [25] According to her account, she wrote the rest of the song with Jordan but for tax reasons gave her songwriting credit to her partner at the time, Billy Foster. Early life But rarely is Etta James recognized among those pioneers. In fact, as truly great as that song is, James recorded another that was even betterand its one she co-wrote, although, for tax reasons, she gave songwriting credit to her then boyfriend. The film follows the exciting but turbulent lives of some of America's greatest Negro . Still, the parade of famous faces playing famous faces overstuffs the movie with subjects deserving of features but instead treated as footnotes. In 1954, she moved to Los Angeles to record The Wallflower. Her career had begun to soar by 1960, due in no small part to songs like Id Rather Go Blind and At Last.. Since 1989 (notably rather late in her career, after nearly thirty years of prior recording), James has received over 30 awards and recognitions from eight different organizations, including the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum[64] and the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences which organizes the Grammys.[65]. The follow-up, Good Rockin' Daddy, reached No 12 in the R&B charts in November 1955. Less than a year after selling their label, Leonard Chess was dead. That success was quickly followed by "Stop the Wedding", which reached number six on the R&B chart and also had gospel elements. Leonard Chess - Wikipedia After an excerpt of that song was featured in a Diet Coke advertising campaign in the UK, the song again charted, reaching the top ten on the UK charts in 1996.[16]. In 1992, she recorded the album The Right Time, produced by Jerry Wexler for Elektra Records. That is the stern virtue that I highly respect in the artistry and legend of Ms. Etta James. [42] The following year, 1990, she received an NAACP Image Award, which is given for "outstanding achievements and performances of people of color in the arts;"[66] it was an award she cherished as it "was coming from my own people". In her autobiography, Rage to Survive, she wrote that she heard the song outlined by her friend Ellington "Fugi" Jordan when she visited him in prison. She also often performed at free summer arts festivals throughout the United States. Chess Records, whose founder, Leonard Chess, called James their first soul singer, she wrote. . Her 1963 album EttaJames Rocks the House was recorded live at the New Era club in Nashville and documents a formidable performer. And the family name, Czy, became Chess. [39] James' original classic music again charted after these 21st-century re-interpretations. Glad you enjoyed it! She also recalled how happy he made her many years later when she found out that it was Presley who had moved her close friend Jackie Wilson from a substandard convalescent home to a more appropriate facility and, as she put it, paid all the expenses. Leonard invested in Aristocrat Records and eventually asked his brother to invest with him. All rights reserved, Cadillac Records: The "UNTRUE" Story of Etta James, Kashif Presents: The History of R&B music, Morris Day and Sheila E. Bring the Funk to Kiss 104.1 Flashback Festival, Jazz 91.9 WCLK Presents Patti LaBelle with Atlanta Symphony Orchestra for 45th Anniversary Benefit Concert, #SoulfulSaturday : How Deep Is Your Love PJ Morton Feat. The tracks crossover potential was limited by more than just its sexually charged lyrics. Testimonials, Shipping and Returns Policy Leonard Chess Lejzor Szmuel Czy (March 12, 1917 - October 16, 1969), best known as Leonard Sam Chess, was a Polish-American record company executive and the co-founder of Chess Records. Revetta passed away in 1983, at age 64 in California, United States of America. Joplin had admired James and had covered "Tell Mama" in concert. Her 1978 album Deep in the Night, produced by Jerry Wexler for Warner Bros., incorporated more rock-based music in her repertoire. Etta James Dead: Legendary Singer Passes Away At 73 Years Old - HuffPost Appreciate your comment. James participated with the rap singer Def Jef on the song "Droppin' Rhymes on Drums", which mixed James's jazz vocals with hip-hop. She was buried at Inglewood Park Cemetery in Los Angeles County, California. Chess Records began after Phil and Leonard acquired full ownership of Chicago-based Aristocrat Records in 1950, Leonard having bought an initial share in it in 1947. Born in Los Angeles, California, on January 25, 1938, Etta James was a gospel prodigy. The same sample was used by the east coast rapper Flo Rida in his 2011 hit single "Good Feeling". Etta James was born Jamesetta Hawkins in Los Angeles, California on January 25, 1938; her mother was just 14 years old at the time, and she never knew her father, though she would later say she. On his release in 1981, the couple reunited. Following this brief success, however, she left Chess Records and did not record for another ten years while she struggled with drug addiction and alcoholism. Pianist Prez was then a professor at the New England Conservatory; his student, Read More Explaining the Taubman Approach, Everyone knows that Joe Williams sang the hell out of the blues, but do you know what else he sang the hell out of? Perhaps her voice, so raw and emotionally expressive, was too fierce for the general public. All rights reserved. For those of you whove never read the the autobiography of Etta James, Rage To Survive, I stronglyencourage you tocheckout thisbook. They quickly went to Chicago to join their father, Joseph, who was already engaged in the liquor business, which was illegal at the height of Prohibition and controlled in Chicago by Al Capone. How many children did Leonard Chess have with Revetta Sloan? 1 Did Leonard Chess really die in his car? Phillips supplied Chess with recordings by Howlin' Wolf, Rufus Thomas, and Doctor Ross among others. The illness became terminal, and her husband Artis Mills was appointed sole conservator of the James estate and to oversee her medical care. The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". James never again enjoyed a major US hit, although she continued to record strong material. "He went up and down the halls of Chess announcing, `Etta's crossed over! inserted here and there to remind us that these small stars are, in fact, portraying larger-than-life musicians whose work would influence generations. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. [4] Around this time, she became involved in a relationship with the singer Harvey Fuqua, the founder of the doo-wop group the Moonglows. [22] The album included the future classics "I Just Want to Make Love to You" and "A Sunday Kind of Love". They're faint echoes of classics, soulless and gutless. Something's Got a Hold on Me - Wikipedia [citation needed] In her autobiography, she noted how impressed she was with the young singer's manners. Make a one-time donation today for as little as $1. "[citation needed] In 1954, James recorded and was credited as co-author for "The Wallflower" (a title change to the aforementioned song, "Work with Me, Annie"), which was released in early 1955. [14] Within a couple of years, she began listening to doo-wop and was inspired to form a girl group, the Creolettes (so named for the members' light-skinned complexions). [4] Rolling Stone magazine ranked James number 22 on its list of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time; she was also ranked number 62 on Rolling Stone's list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. Phil Chess, Co-Founder Of Chess Records, Dies At 95 : NPR She performed at the Playboy Jazz Festival in 1990, 1997, 2004, and 2007. [55] James was arrested in 1966 for writing bad checks. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. Her funeral was presided over by the Reverend Al Sharpton and took place in Gardena, California eight days after her death. A shift to Warner Brothers in 1978 did not return her to a wide audience and, although she often worked with major producers, James remained beloved more by critics and blues-soul aficionados than a mass audience. Her approach to both singing and life was throughout one of wild, often desperate engagement that included violence, drug addiction, armed robbery and highly capricious behaviour. The film Cadillac Records, a heavily fictionalised biopic about Chess Records, attracted wide attention due to Beyonc's appearance asJames. He was the co-founder of the legendary Chess Records label, which was responsible for signing and starting the careers of some of music's biggest stars. Chess Records co-founder Leonard Chess envisioned James as a classic ballad stylist who had potential to cross over to the pop charts and soon surrounded the singer with violins and other string instruments. Tell Mama's B-side was I'd Rather Go Blind, a brooding, agonised ballad ofloss and jealousy which now stands asJames's most celebrated recording and one of the classic sides of soul music. At the age of 14, she met musician Johnny Otis. [37] It was later reported that Alzheimer's disease and "drug-induced dementia" had contributed to her negative comments about Knowles.[38]. Leonard Chess played bass drum on one of Muddy Waters' sessions in 1951, specifically on the tracks "She Moves Me" and "Still A Fool".[8]. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. Musician Bobby Murray toured with James for over 20 years. Thank you so much for your comment! Etta James - I'd Rather Go Blind Watch on Hope West James was inducted into the Rock n Roll Hall of Fame a full eight years before her 2001 inclusion in the Blues Hall of Fame. Leonard and his brother Phil became involved in the black nightclub scene on the South Side of Chicago in 1938 running a series of jazz clubs, culminating in the Macomba Lounge. Read More Joe Williams: Beyond the Blues, As a JazzTimes writer, I can talk about the powers of a dynamic drummer until Im blue in the face: the weight of each tom-toms Read More Chops: What Bassists Listen for in Drummers, America's jazz resource, delivered to your inbox. [2], James's deep and earthy voice bridged the gap between rhythm and blues and rock and roll. James wrote or co-wrote several of her greatest songs. [35] She performed at the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival in 2006 and 2009 (prior 2012 credit - after date of death). The Chess brothers moved the company away from black pop and jazz and other genres into down home blues music with artists such as Muddy Waters. She quickly became known for having an unusually strong voice for a child her age. I agree, the Etta James story needs no embellishment. "Shewas never there when I got off from school," James recalled, "so I could pretty much do what I wanted to do drinking, smoking weed." Although there were no more 50s hits, she was a popular attraction in black America's working-class "chitlin' circuit" clubs. [16] Its success also gave the Peaches an opening spot on Little Richard's national tour.[17]. These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. What is causing the plague in Thebes and how can it be fixed? In 1973, James was arrested for possession of heroin. Who was the co-founder of Chess Records? He was 95. On October 16, 1969, a few months after selling his namesake label to General Recorded Tape, Revetta's husband Leonard Chess died of a heart attack. [73] In 2003, she was given the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. It never happened. He even asked James, a longtime friend, and she told him, He kissed me on the cheek once.. Here her powerhouse contralto voice was matched with the sumptuous, bluesy string arrangements of Riley Hampton, and James truly came into her own as a singer. Described as a soul enigma by MOJO magazine in 2002, Jordan has had a fascinating musical career of his own. [40] Her musical style changed during the course of her career. Our Mission And, in 2008, Rolling Stone ranked her at number 22 in its rock-focused list of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time. Her 1963 album Etta James Rocks the House was recorded live at the New Era club in Nashville and documents a formidable performer. [15] At this time Otis also gave James her stage name, transposing "Jamesetta" (her given first name) into "Etta James. Contribute James was a star, yet one seemingly set on self-destruction. (modern), Etta James's approach to singing and to life was one of wild, desperate engagement. Theyoung superstar made adecent job of portraying her as a foul-mouthed, two-fisted singer, yet lacked the raging bull quality that made James sounforgettable. He was so impressed with James's voice and her songwriting skills that he offered to take her to Los Angeles the following day to record Roll With Me Henry. [56] In 1969, she spent 10 days in jail for violating probation.[51]. Confronting Satan in a Dark Spanish Castle, sung by Beyoncto Barack and Michelle Obama. Already a member? I will make certain to bookmark your blog and will often come back Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. In 1995 James recorded Mystery Lady, the first in a series of jazz vocal albums where she channelled the influence of Billie Holiday. James formed a vocal trio, the Creolettes, with two teenage friends. Hoochie Coochie Men | Arts Stories & Interviews | Detroit | Detroit Describing the song in her autobiography, James wrote, I was blind. Waters, recorded one day in the field by Alan Lomax (Tony Bentley), reckons he's got a future in the Big City and treads the tracks till he reaches Chicago. In time, other important artists signed with Chess Records, including Bo Diddley and Sonny Boy Williamson, while Willie Dixon and Robert Lockwood Jr. took on a significant role behind the scenes. During this period, she became addicted to methadone and would mix her doses with heroin. Former Artie Shaw vocalist Georgia Gibbs, signed to the far more powerful Mercury label, released a cleaned-up cover version, safely entitled Dance With Me Henry. It spent three weeks at number one on the pop charts. Roll With Me Henry was retitled The Wallflower Modern Records decided the original title was too explicit and Otis renamed his protege Etta James. The label's many talents included Jimmy Reed, Bo Diddley, John Lee Hooker, Robert Nighthawk, Muddy Waters, Gene Ammons, Jimmy Rogers,. In 1989, the newly formed Rhythm and Blues Foundation included James in their first Pioneer Awards for artists whose "lifelong contributions have been instrumental in the development of Rhythm & Blues music". James would go on to publicly criticize Beyonce, who was invited to perform the song at Barack Obama's inaugural ball, but later added that her critical remarks were meant to be received as a joke and stemmed from personal hurt over not having been invited to the sing the song herself for the Obama inauguration. Leonard S. Chess (1917-1969) - Find a Grave Memorial At the beginning of her recording career, in the mid-1950s, James was marketed as an R&B and doo-wop singer. [7] In 1950, the Chess brothers renamed the company Chess Records. [42] James has influenced a wide variety of musicians, including, notably, Diana Ross, Christina Aguilera, Janis Joplin, Brandy, Bonnie Raitt, Shemekia Copeland, Beth Hart, Hayley Williams of Paramore[43] and Brent Smith of Shinedown[44] as well as British artists The Rolling Stones,[45] Elkie Brooks,[46] Paloma Faith,[47] Joss Stone,[48] Rita Ora, Amy Winehouse, and Adele,[49] and the Belgian singer Dani Klein. [34] She performed six times at the North Sea Jazz Festival, in 1978, 1982, 1989, 1990, 1991 and 1993. Her final album for Private Music, Let's Roll, released in 2005, won the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Blues Album. Addicted to heroin and bad men, she lived a criminal lifestyle and was jailed several times. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. Otis took the Creolettes under his wing and helped them sign to Modern Records, at which point they changed their name to Peaches. Just 52 years old, the elder brother had died of a heart attack in his car less than two blocks from the Chess headquarters. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Two films highlight role of Jewish immigrants in popularizing blues and rock", "Fictional History: What It Was Like to Start Rock 'n' Roll, Sort Of", Chess Records: How Two Polish Brothers Made Music History, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leonard_Chess&oldid=1145483368, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles needing additional references from December 2016, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 19 March 2023, at 11:03.
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